Historic Volcanoes: Kuputika kwakachinja Geological Evolution

Nhoroondo yeNyika inodyidzana zvakanyanya nekuputika kwemakomo., zviitiko izvozvo zvinoshamisa izvo, kwemamiriyoni emakore, zvakaumba pasi, zvakachinja mamiriro okunze epasi uye, pane dzimwe nguva, zvakaisa pangozi kurarama kwemarudzi ose, kusanganisira edu pachedu. Makomo anoputika haangonakidzi chete pakuputika kwebota nemadota, asi nekuti anomiririra kuratidzwa kwakakosha kwemaitiro emukati mepasi, achishanda sevamiriri veshanduko pane ese ari maviri geological uye magariro uye mamiriro ekunze..

Muchinyorwa chino tichafamba nemunguva nenzvimbo kuti tiongorore kuputika kwemakomo kwakaitika kare.—uye kazhinji zvinosuruvarisa—izvo zvakaumba shanduka-shanduka uye zvakasiya chiratidzo chisingadzimiki pakubudirira kwevanhu. Nekuda kweuchapupu, zvidzidzo zvesainzi, uye kufambira mberi mune zvekuputika kwemakomo, isu tave nekunzwisisa kuri nani kwekuti sei, kupi, uye nei zviitiko zvikuru izvi zvichiitika, uye kuti chii chakanyanya kukanganisa mhedzisiro.

Kukosha kwemakomo anoputika munhoroondo yePasi

Makomo anoputika madhiraivha echokwadi enhoroondo yepasi uye mamiriro ekunze.. Kwemakore mamiriyoni maviri apfuura, Zvikamu zvikuru zvinoputika zvakakonzera kutsakatika, kuchinja kwemamiriro ekunze uye kushanduka kukuru kwenzvimbo.. Havasi ivo chete vanoumba zororo, asi kuburitsa kwavo mumhepo Vanogona kushandura tembiricha yepasi rose uye kukanganisa hupenyu hwePasi..

Volcanology, sainzi inodzidza nezvezviitiko izvi, yafambira mberi zvakanyanya mumakumi emakore achangopfuura nekuda kwezviridzwa zvemazuva ano, kuongorora kwechando, kufambidzana chaiko, uye kuona setiraiti. Makomo makuru anoputika, pamusoro pekuisa njodzi kune vanhu vari pedyo, akakosha pakunzwisisa mamiriro ekunze apfuura uye maitiro akaumba makondinendi..

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): kuti simba rekuputika rinoyerwa sei

Iyo Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) inoshandiswa kurongedza ukuru uye kusimba kwekuputika kwemakomo.Yakagadzirwa nevanoongorora makomo anoputika Christopher G. Newhall naStephen Self, chikero ichi chinotangira pa0 kusvika ku8 logarithms uye inoongorora maparameter akasiyana-siyana, akadai sehuwandu hwezvinhu zvakabviswa, kureba kwekoramu inoputika, uye nguva yechiitiko.

A VEI kukosha kwe1 yaienderana nediki, kuputika kunoramba kuripo kwakafanana nekwaStromboli., nepo VEI ye8 inoratidza epic cataclysms seTaupo. Iyo VEI imwecheteyo inogona kureva kukanganisa kwakasiyana zvichienderana nejogirafi, mamiriro ekunze, kuwanda kwevanhu uye zviitiko zvakabatana zvakaita setsunami, kuyerera kwemadhaka kana lahars..

Kuputika kunoparadza zvikuru hakusi nguva dzose kunoputika zvikuru.; Kazhinji, huwandu hwepamusoro hwevanobatwa hunobva kuzvinhu zvechipiri, zvakadai sekutadza kutonga kwenjodzi, kuva pedyo nekugara kwevanhu, kana kuparara kwezvipenyu nezvirimwa zvichitevera chiitiko chekuputika kwegomo.

Prehistoric volcanic kuputika nekukanganisa kwepasirese

Kuputika kukuru kwekutanga kwechokwadi kwakaitika kare kare nyika isati yatanga.Pakati pavo, maviri anomira pachena, ayo akapotsa amanikidza kutsakatika kwevanhu uye ane maronda anowanikwa pasi rese.

• Kuputika kweLake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia)Makore angangoita 75.000 apfuura, kuputika kwegomo guru iri kwakave nekuputika kune simba zvakanyanya kunozivikanwa mumakore miriyoni maviri apfuura, kuburitsa zvinhu zvinosvika 2.800 cubic kilometres. Madota akafukidza nzvimbo huru dzepasi Uye ongororo dzinoratidza kuti nhamba yevanhu yakaderera zvikuru, sezvo anenge mapoka ose akanga abva muAfrica akatsakatika. Zvinofungidzirwa kuti tembiricha yepasi rose yakadzikira zvinoshamisa, izvo zvakaita kuti marudzi avanhu asvike pakutsakatika.
• Kuputika kweThera (Santorini, Greece)Makore angangoita 3.600 apfuura (1600 BC), chitsuwa cheSantorini pakanga pakaitika kuputika kukuru kwakaburitsa zvinhu zvakaenzana nekukura kweKrakatoa. Matsunami mana akagadzirwa, akaparadza misha uye achichinja zvakanyanya mamiriro eGungwa reAegean, zvichikonzera kuparara kwebudiriro yeMinoan.

Kuputika kwenhoroondo kwakashandura geology nebudiriro

Nhoroondo dzevanhu dzakazara nenyaya uye zvipupuriro zvekuputika kukuru kwakashandura nzira yenhoroondo., kubvira kare kusvika kunguva yemazuva ano. Zvizhinji zvacho zvakanyorwa nevanyori venhoroondo, vanochera matongo, uye, munguva pfupi yapfuura, nzira dzesainzi dzepamusoro.

Vesuvius (Italy, gore 79): kuparadzwa kwePompeii neHerculaneum

Gomo reVesuvius, muBay of Naples, rakanga riri nzvimbo yeimwe yezvinyorwa zvinonyanya kuputika zvechinyakare.Musi waNyamavhuvhu 24, 79 AD, mushure memazana emakore ekusaita basa, gomo racho rakaputika nechisimba chikuru, richibudisa madota, lapilli, uye magasi ane chepfu akaviga maguta ePompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, uye Stabiae.

Pliny Muduku akaona ngwavaira yacho ndokurondedzera zvakaitika kwaari kupfurikidza netsamba kushamwari yake Tacitus., kutsanangura kuputika, kuputsika kwematenga nekuda kwehuremu hwezvinhu zvinoputika uye kufambira mberi kwezvinouraya pyroclastic inoyerera.

• Zvinofungidzirwa kuti vanhu vari pakati pe1.500 4.000 neXNUMX XNUMX vakafa., kunyangwe zvidzidzo zvenguva pfupi yapfuura zvichisimudza huwandu nekuda kwezvisaririra zvinowanikwa mumavillas, mabhichi nedzimba dzekuchengetera zviteshi.
• Madota acho akafukidza guta pasi pemutsara ungasvika mamita makumi maviri nemashanu, kuchengetedza skeleton uye zvivako zvakachengetedzwa zvakanyanyisa, izvo zvakatibvumira kuvakazve, zvakadzama, kukanganisa kwechiitiko chacho.
• Kuputika kweVesuvius kwakapa zita rayo kune izwi rekuti "Plinian eruptions", inoshandiswa pakuputika kwakanyanya uye kwakasimba.

Njodzi yeVesuvius inoramba iripo nanhasi nekuda kwekuve pedyo kwayo neNaples, guta revanhu vanopfuura mamirioni matatu.Nhoroondo inoratidza kuti gomo iri rinogona kuva nekuputika kukuru mumakore zviuru zviviri oga oga.

Tambora (Indonesia, 1815): kuputika kwakashandura mamiriro ekunze enyika

Tambora ndiye protagonist wekuputika kwakaipisisa kwegomo rinoputika uye yakanyanya kukosha mamiriro ekunze akanyorwa munhoroondo yemazuva ano.Musi wa5 Kubvumbi, 1815, gomo rinoputika remuIndonesia rakabvisa zvinhu zvinodarika 160 cubic kilometers, ndokudonha koni yaro ndokugadzira gomo rakareba makiromita matanhatu.

Migumisiro yaro yakananga uye isina kunanga yakanga ichiparadza.:

• Vanhu vari pakati pe60.000 120.000 neXNUMX XNUMX vakafa., vazhinji vavo nemhaka yenzara uye zvirwere zvakazotevera (10.000 XNUMX chete vakafa pakarepo).
• Gore resarufa nemadota rakashandura mamiriro ekunze uye rakakonzera "gore risina zhizha" muna 1816.: kudonha kwechando pakati pechirimo kuchamhembe kwehemisphere, kudonha kuri pakati pe0,5ºC ne0,7ºC mukupisa kwepasi rose, zvirimwa zvakaparara uye nzara yakaipisisa yezana ramakore rechi XNUMX.
• Migumisiro yacho yakapararira kuEurope neNorth America, ine meteorological anomalies iyo yakafuridzira mabasa ehunyanzvi uye ezvinyorwa, sengano yaFrankenstein.

Kuputika kweTambora kwakashandura zvachose maonero evanhu pamusoro pesimba rezvisikwa uye kusagadzikana kune zviitiko zvikuru zvegomo rinoputika..

Krakatoa (Indonesia, 1883): kuputika kwakaitika pasirese

Iri muSunda Strait, Krakatoa yakaputika zvakanyanya mukupera kwaAugust 1883.Kuputika kwakatevedzana kwakaguma muna Nyamavhuvhu 27, apo kuzhinji kwechitsuwa kwakaputikirwa kuita zvidimbu zvidimbu, zvichikonzera kuvhunduka kwakatenderera pasirese kakawanda uye kwakanzwika kure ne4.800 km.

• Ruzha rwekuputika nderimwe reruzha rwakanyorwa munhoroondo., anosvika 180 decibel pamakiromita 160 kubva ipapo.
• Yakakonzera tsunami huru inosvika 40 metres kureba. iyo yakaparadza misha inopfuura 160 nemataundi ari mumhenderekedzo yegungwa pazvitsuwa zveJava neSumatra, zvichikonzera kufa kwevanhu vanenge 36.417 XNUMX.
• Koramu inoputika yakasvika makiromita makumi masere pakureba uye madota akapararira pasi rose, zvichikonzera zvinokatyamadza zvemaziso uye kuvhiringika kwemamiriro ekunze kwenguva pfupi.
• Nyaya yeKrakatoa yakapararira pasi rose nekuda kwekufambira mberi kweteregirafu., zvichiita kuti ive chiratidzo chekusagadzikana kwebudiriro kune zvakasikwa.

Ilopango (El Salvador, gore 540): iyo yakakanganwa njodzi yeCentral America

Asingasviki makiromita makumi maviri kubva pakati peSan Salvador ndiyo caldera yegomo rinoputika reIlopango., iyo, muna 540 AD, yakaburitsa kuputika kukuru kwechipiri kwakanyorwa muCentral America mumakore 84.000 XNUMX. Lake Ilopango, ine nzvimbo inopfuura 70 km², nhasi ndiyo chapupu chinyararire chechiitiko chakabvisa 84 cubic kilometers yezvinhu, kuviga zvirimwa, misha, uye budiriro yese pasi pe "nyika chena diki.".

• Kuputika kwacho kwakaparadza kumadokero, nechepakati uye kumabvazuva kweEl Salvador., ine dota rakakora kusvika pamamita matatu munzvimbo huru, richiuraya vanhu vari pakati pe40.000 80.000 neXNUMX XNUMX pakarepo.
• Njodzi iyi yakakonzera dambudziko rehuwandu hwevanhu uye tsika, zvichiita kuti vapukunyuki vari pakati pe100.000 400.000 neXNUMX XNUMX vatame, vakawanda vavo vakakundwa nokushayikwa kwezvokudya nemvura mumwedzi nemakore akatevera.
• Ilopango yakawedzera kutonhora kwepasi rose kwakatanga muna 536 neimwe kuputika kukuru (zvichida muIceland), kunobatsira ku "Denda reJustinian" uye dambudziko rakakura kwazvo muEurasia neMediterranean.

Kuputika kweIlopango kwave kuri muenzaniso wekuti makomo anoputika eCentral America akakanganisawo sei pasi rose, kazhinji asingatarisirwi kunze kwekwaanogara.

Gomo rePelée (Martinique, 1902): dambudziko rose muCaribbean

Musi waMay 8, 1902, guta reSaint-Pierre, rakabudirira zvikuru pachitsuwa cheMartinique, rakaparadzwa mumaminitsi mashomanana nokuyerera kwepyroclastic kubva kuMount Pelée.Kuputika uku kwakaparadza guta rose mumaminitsi mashoma, ndokuuraya vanhu vanopfuura 29.000 XNUMX. Vatatu bedzi vakapukunyuka, mumwe wavo, Ludger Sylbaris, nemhaka yokupfigirwa kwake muchitokisi chepasi pevhu.

• Kuputika kwePelée kwainyanya kuuraya nekuda kwekushaiwa ruzivo uye kugadzirira njodzi dzekuputika kwemakomo.Chimiro uye chiyero chekuyerera kwepyroclastic, iyo inofamba pamusoro pe100 km / h, ichiparadza zvinhu zvose munzira yavo, yakanga isingazivikanwi.
• Basa resainzi raAlfred Lacroix, chapupu uye nyanzvi yechiitiko ichi, yakakurudzira kuzvarwa kwezvinoputika zvinoputika uye tsvakiridzo munjodzi dzinosangana nemakomo anoputika..

Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia, 1985): njodzi inodzivisika

Nevado del Ruiz, mudungwe remakomo eAndes, pakanga pane imwe yenjodzi dzakaipisisa munhoroondo yemazuva ano yeLatin America.Musi waNovember 13, 1985, kuputika kudiki maererano nehuwandu (0,02 km³, VEI 3) kwakakonzera kuti chando chinyunguduke uye madhaka anouraya (mudflows) aumbe, ayo akaburuka mumipata, achiparadza guta reArmero.

• Vanosvika zviuru makumi maviri nezvitatu vanhu vakafa muArmero uye kukuvadzwa kwezvinhu kwakasvika kudarika 7.700 bhiriyoni emadhora (panguva iyoyo), zvichikanganisa 20% yeColombian GDP.
• Pasinei nezviratidzo zvekare zvekuitika kwegomo rinoputika uye kuvapo kwemepu dzengozi, kushaikwa kwemhinduro yakakwana yesangano uye maalarm system kwakadzivirira kubuda kwevanhu vakawanda.Njodzi yaOmayra Sánchez, musikana akanga avharirwa mumadhaka nemarara, yakava chiratidzo chenjodzi yacho.

Dambudziko reNevado del Ruiz rakaratidza shanduko mukutonga kwenjodzi yekuputika kwemakomo uye maonero emagariro engozi ye geological..

Pinatubo (Philippines, 1991): kuputika-kunotungamirirwa zvakanyanya kwezana ramakore rechiXNUMX

Pachitsuwa cheLuzon, Gomo rePinatubo rakaputika muna June 1991 pashure pemazana emakore ekusaita basa, zvichikonzera kumwe kuputika kukuru kwezana remakore rechiXNUMX. (VEI 6, 10 km³ yezvinhu zvakadzingwa). Chiitiko chacho chakakonzera kubviswa kwekudzivirira kwevanhu vanopfuura 200.000 uye kuderedzwa kwekushisa kwepasi rose pakati pe 0,4 ° C uye 0,6 ° C nekuda kwekubuda kweaerosols uye sulfur dioxide mu stratosphere.

Mhedzisiro yekukurumidza yaive yakaderera maererano nevakakuvara (932 kufa)., nekuda kwekutonga kwepasirese uye mhinduro. Zvisinei, kuparara kwezvinhu, kuparadzwa kwedzimba, uye kuparara kwezvivako zvakaramba zviripo kwemwedzi yakawanda.

Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland, 2010): gomo rinoputika rakaomesa muEurope

Iri Icelandic subglacial volcano rakaputika musi wa20 Kurume 2010, pakutanga riine zvitubu zvebasaltic lava zvaikwezva kufarira vashanyi.Asi muna Kubvumbi 14, shanduko yekuenda kune hydrovolcanic modhi yakaitika apo magma yakasangana nechando chechando, ichigadzira kuputika kwakatsemuka uye madota akanaka kwazvo.

• Gore remadota rakakurumidza kuparadzirwa kuEurope nemhepo dzaivepo., zvichigadzira bongozozo rakakura kwazvo rendege munhoroondo yazvino: ndege dzinopfuura zviuru zana dzakamiswa uye vafambi vane mamirioni gumi vakasiiwa.
• Chiitiko ichi chakaedza kurongeka kwepasi rose kweVolcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs) uye kugona kupindura kumatambudziko ekuputika kwemakomo munzvimbo dzakabatana zvakanyanya.
• Mari yakananga yehupfumi yechiitiko ichi inofungidzirwa kusvika pamadhora 23.000 bhiriyoni..

Laki (Iceland, 1783): nzara yakakonzera nhoroondo yeEurope

Kuputika kweLakagigar (Laki) muIslandi, pakati pe1783 na1784, kwakadzinga matani anopfuura miriyoni zana nemakumi maviri esulfur dioxide, yakafukidza Europe mumhute ine muchetura.Migumisiro yaro yakaguma nekufa kwe80% yeIcelandic zvipfuwo uye nzara ye25% yevanhu. Zvimedu nemagasi zvakafamba kuenda kuEuropean continent, zvichiwedzera hurombo uye matambudziko emagariro aivepo Kumudzira kweFrance kusati kwaitika.

• Kuderera kwetembiricha uye kukundikana kwezvirimwa kwakatungamirira kumakore anoverengeka enhamo yakapararira., zvichiratidza kuti kuputika kwezviuru zvemamaira kubva kunzvimbo huru dzevagari vemo kunogona sei kuita shanduko huru mumagariro evanhu.

Makomo anoputika ekare ane huwandu hwevanhu vanofa

Kuputika kwemakomo kuzhinji kwakadzika munhoroondo kwete zvakanyanya nekuda kwehukuru hwavo sekuwanda kwevanyajambwa vavakasiya.Pano tinopfupisa zvimwe zvezvakafa zvakanyanya:

• Tambora (1815): kusvika ku85.000 vakafa, kunyanya nekuda kwenzara uye zvirwere zvinoenderana.
• Krakatoa (1883): vanopfuura 36.000 XNUMX vakafa, vazhinji vavo nekuda kwetsunami.
• Gomo rePelée (1902): 29.000 vakafa kubva pakuyerera kwepyroclastic.
• Nevado del Ruiz (1985): 23.080 vakafa kubva mumarasha.
• Unzen (Japan, 1792): 15.000 vakakuvadzwa zvakanyanya nekuda kwetsunami inotevera kuputika.
• Santa Maria (Guatemala, 1902): vanopfuura 8.700 XNUMX vakafa.
• Kelut (Indonesia, 1919): vangangoita zviuru zvishanu vakafa kubva mukudonha kwemadhaka kubva mugomba regungwa.
• Papandayan (Indonesia, 1772): 3.000 vakafa kubva pakaputsika gomo.
• Lamington (Papua New Guinea, 1951): 2.942 vakafa kubva mukuputika kwerudzi rwePlinian.
• Bump (Mexico, 1982): vanenge 2.000 XNUMX vakawirwa nenjodzi, njodzi huru yegomo rinoputika munhoroondo yemazuva ano yeMexico.
• Lake Nyos (Cameroon, 1986): 1.746 vakafa nekuda kwekungoerekana kuburitswa kwemagasi emakomo.
• La Soufrière (Saint Vincent, Caribbean, 1902): 1.565 XNUMX vakafa.
• Agung (Indonesia, 1963): 1.138 vakafa kubva pakuyerera kwepyroclastic.
• Merapi (Indonesia, 1930): 1.363 XNUMX vakafa.
• Pinatubo (Philippines, 1991): 932 kufa, muenzaniso wekutonga kwakanaka kwekukurumidzira kunyangwe ukuru hwayo.

Premonitory eruptions yePleistocene uye Holocene: nyaya yeTaupo

Kudzokera kumashure zvakanyanya nekufamba kwenguva, kuputika kukuru kwegomo reTaupo muNew Zealand, angangoita makore makumi maviri nemazana mashanu apfuura, rakabvisa zvinhu zvakakwana kuti uwane iyo yakanyanya VEI index (26.500)Inofungidzirwa kuti 1.170 km³ yezvinhu zvakaparadzirwa, zvichifukidza North Island neyakafukidzirwa yekupisa kusvika ku200 metres gobvu. Zviitiko zvakadaro hazviwanzoitiki, asi zvinotiyeuchidza nezvesimba rinoparadza rezvisikwa.

Mamwe makomo uye kuputika kwakakosha zvikuru

• Chaitén (Chile, 2008): Kuputika kwechisimba zvakanyanya muChile kubvira 1932, nekubviswa kwevanhu 6.000 uye kuparadzwa kweguta rine zita rimwe chete.
• Mount Saint Helens (United States, 1980)Inofungidzirwa kuti ndiyo njodzi yakaipisisa yekuputika kwemakomo munhoroondo yeUS, ine 24-kilomita madota column, anopfuura 350 km² yesango rakatsva, uye makumi mashanu nevaviri vakafa.
• Nevado del Huila (Colombia, 1994): Kudengenyeka kwepasi uye lahar zvakaparadza misha yose uye zvakakonzera vanhu vanenge 1.000 XNUMX vakafa.
• Nyiragongo (Congo, 1977)Kukurumidza kupera kwedhamu remabota kwakakonzera kufa kwemazana evanhu mumaminitsi mashoma.

Geological uye mamiriro ekunze zvinokonzerwa nemakomo makuru anoputika

Kuputika kukuru kwemakomo kunodarika njodzi dzemunharaunda uye kune zvazvinoreva pasi rose.Nekuburitsa sulfur aerosols uye madota akanaka mu stratosphere, Zvinoratidza chiedza chezuva, kuderedza tembiricha yepasi uye kuchinja mamiriro ekunze., sezvakaitika kuna Tambora, Pinatubo naLaki.

Parizvino, kutarisa chiitiko chekuputika kwemakomo kwakakosha pakuderedza njodzi.Kudyidzana kwepasi rose kuburikidza nemasetiraiti, masensa, uye network dzechimbichimbi zvinotitendera kuti titarisire muchidimbu kukanganisa kwekuputika kwemangwana. Asi kusadzivirirwa kunoramba kwakakwira munzvimbo dzine vanhu vakawanda, uye zviitiko zve geological zvinoramba zvichitiyeuchidza nezve kukosha kwekubatanidza sainzi, kuparidzira, uye kudyara mukudzivirira.

Basa rekuchengetedza njodzi munhoroondo yegomo rinoputika

Kukanganisa kwekuputika hakubvi pasimba rechisikigo chete, asiwo kugona kwevanhu kutarisira, kupindura, uye kudzidza kubva pane zvakambokanganisa. Mienzaniso yakaita sePinatubo inoratidza kuti kutarisira kwakanaka kunogona kuponesa zviuru zvehupenyu, nepo njodzi yeArmero inoratidza mutengo wekusaita uye kushaikwa kwekukurukurirana.

Nhoroondo yekuputika kwemakomo chiyeuchidzo chenguva dzose chekudiwa kwe kudzidza, kunzwisisa uye kuremekedza miganhu yepasiKuputika kwakapesvedzera geology yenyika, mamiriro ekunze, tsika, uye kunyange huwandu hwevanhu. Iwo chikamu chesimba rePasi, uye kudzidza kwavo kwakakosha pakuronga ramangwana uye kunzwisisa zvakapfuura geological uye zvevanhu.